Environmental Impact - Wildlife/Vegetation Effects

(1971). Social wildlife investigations: Second progress report of the Sanjoaquin River rookery study. California Dept. Fish Game: 25pp.
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(1974). Effects of Snowmobile Traffic on Non-Forest Vegetation and Grasses. Proceedings of the 1973 snowmobile and Off the Road Vehicle Research Symposium., Michigan State University. East Lansing, MI.
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(1975). Vehicles perturbation effects upon a tundra soil-plant system: I. Effects on morphological and physical environment properties on the soils. Soil Science Society of American Proceedings 39(4): 737-744.

Adams, E. S. (1975). Effects of lead and hydrocarbons from snowmobile exhaust on brook trout (Salvelinus fontanlis). Amer. Fish. Soc. Trans. 104: 363-373.
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Adams, L. W. & Geis, A.D. (1980). Effects of highways on wildlife: Urban Wildlife Research Center: 152pp.
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Adams, L.W. & Geis, A.D. (1983). Effects of roads on small mammals. Journal of Applied Ecology 20: 403-415.
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Allan, G. E. (1981). Remote sensing of off-road vehicle impacts to soil and vegetation on the Lac du Bois rangelands. Kamloops, British Columbia. Vancouver, B.C., University of British Columbia.

American Forests. (1972). Snowmobiles and the national parks. American Forests.
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Amstrup, S. C. & Beecham, J. (1976). Activity patterns of radio-collared black bears in Colorado. Journal of Wildlife Management 40: 340-348.
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Anders, F. J., & Leatherman, S. P. (1987). Effects of off-road vehicles on coastal foredunes at Fire Island, New York, USA. Environmental Management, 11(1), 45-52.
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--Full document-- (pdf file, 1.63 MB)

Anderson, D. W. (1988). Dose-response relationship between human disturbance and brown pelican breeding success? Wildlife Society Bulletin 16: 339-345.
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Andersen, D. E., Rongstad, O.J. & Mytton, W.R. (1990). Home-range changes in raptors exposed to increased human activity levels in southeastern Colorado. Wildlife Society Bulletin 18: 134-142.

Anderson, E., Mason, P., & Holmes, E. (1990). Mt. Blue Experimental ATV Trail Environmental Research. Annual Report, Unity College, Unity.
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Anderson, E. & Mason, P. (1989). Monitoring ATV effects on Mt. Blue Ecosystem. Unity, ME, Unity College: 15.
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--Full document-- (pdf file, 1.70 MB)

Atkinson-Wiles, G. (1969). Wildfowl and Recreation: A balance of requirements. British Water Supply 11: 5-15.
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August, P. V., Clarke, J.W., McGaugh, M.H. & Packard, R.L. (1979). Demographic patterns of small mammals: A possible use in impact assessment. Biological Investigations: 333-340.
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Aune, K. E. (1981). Impacts of winter recreationist on wildlife in a portion of Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. Montana State University, Bozeman.: 111pp.
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Baldwin, M. F. & Stoddard, J.D.H. (1974). ORV's and wildlife: A scientific survey. ORV Monitor: 7-8.

Bansner, U. (1976). Mountain goat-human interactions in the Sperry-Gunsight Pass area. Glacier National Park, University of Montana, Missoula: 46pp.
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Barrett, P. (1975). Preliminary observations of off-road vehicle disturbance to sedge meadow tundra at a coastal lowland location. Devon Island, N.W.T. Ottawa, Indian and Northern Affairs.

Barrett, R. R. (1975-1976). Some effects of vehicles on wintering deer within the El Dorado national forest.
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Bart, J. (1977). Impact of human visitations on avian nesting success. Living Bird 16: 186-192.
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Bayfield, N. G. (1971). Some effects of walking and skiing on vegetation at Cairngorm. Journal of Applied Ecology 7: 469-485.

Bear, G. D. & Jones, G.W. (1973). History and distribution of bighorn sheep in Colorado. Colorado Division of Wildlife: 232pp.
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Bechtel Canada & Muskeg Research Institute. (1970). Rolligon tundra disturbance tests: Tuktoyaktuk, August 1970. Fredericton, N.B., Muskeg Research Institute. University of New Brunswick.

Behrend, D. F. & Lubeck, R.A. Flight behavior of white-tailed deer in two Adirondack forests. Journal of Wildlife Management 32: 615-618.
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Belanger, L., & Bedard J. (1989). Responses of staging greater snow geese to human disturbance. Journal of Wildlife Management 53(3): 713-719.
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Belanger, L., & Bedard J. (1990). Energetic cost of man-induced disturbance to staging snow geese. Journal of Wildlife Management 54(1): 36-41.
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Benninger-Traux, M., Vankat, J.L. & Schaefer, R.L. (1992). Trail corridors as habitat and conduits for movement of plant species in Rocky Mountain National Park. Colorado, USA. Landscape Ecology 6(4): 269-278.
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Berry, K. H. (1980). The effects of four-wheel vehicles on biological resources. Off-road vehicle use: 231-233.
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Berry, K. H. (1980). A review of the effects of off-road vehicles on birds and other vertebrates. Proc. Management of Western Forests and Grasslands for non-game Birds.
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Berwick, S. H. (1968). Observations on the decline of the Rock Creek, Montana, population of bighorn sheep. University of Montana, Missoula: 245pp.
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Bird, D. M. (1978). Birds of Prey: A plea for ethics. Ontario Naturalist 17(5): 16-23.
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Blakesly, J. A. & Reese, K.P. (1988). Avian use of campground and non-campground sites in riparian zones. Journal of Wildlife Management 52: 399-402.
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Blume, R., Turney, L., Bio, R.P., & Roberts, A. (2003). Habitat Use by Mountain Goats near Nadina Mountain. Ardea Biological Consulting. 2003.

Boucher, D. H., Aviles, J. & Chepote, R. (1991). Recovery of trail side vegetation from trampling in a tropical rain forest. Environmental Management 15: 257-262.
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Boyle, S. A. & Samson, F.B. (1985). Effects of non-consumptive recreation on wildlife: A review. Wildlife Society Bulletin 13(2) 110-116.
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Brander, R. B. (1974). Ecological impacts of off-road recreation vehicles: Outdoor recreation research applying the results: 29-35.
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Bright, J. A. (1986). Hiker impact on herbaceous vegetation along trails in an evergreen woodland of Texas. Biological Conservation 36: 53-69.
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Brodhead, J. M., & Godfrey, P. J. (1977). Off road vehicle impact in Cape Cod national seashore: Disruption and recovery of dune vegetation. International Journal of Biometeor, 21(3), 299-306.
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--Full document-- (pdf file, 1.20 MB)

Buehler. D.A., Mersmann, T.J., Fraser, J.D. & Seegar, J.K. (1991). Effects of human activity on bald eagle distribution on the northern Chesapeake Bay. Journal of Wildlife Management 55(2).
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Burger, J. (1981). The effect of human activity on birds at a coastal bay. Conservation, 21, 231-241.
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--Full document-- (pdf file, 1.29 MB)

Bury, R. B. (1980). What we know and do not know about off-road vehicle impacts on wildlife. In R.N.L. Andrews & P.P. Nowak (eds.) Off-road vehicle use: A management challenge conference. Washington. D.C.
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Bury, R. B., Luckenbach, R.A. & Busack, S. D. (1977). Effects of off-road vehicles on vertebrates in the California Desert, Washington. D.C. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Wildlife Research Report: 1-23.
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Bury, R. L. (1978). Impacts of snowmobiles on wildlife. Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference.
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Busack, S. D. & Bury, R.B. (1974). Some effects of off-road vehicles and sheep grazing on lizard populations in the Mojave Desert. Biological Conservation 6(3): 179-183.
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Byrne, S. (1973). The Effect of Off Road Vehicle Use in the Mojave Desert on Small Mammal Populations. Preliminary Studies on the Effects of Off-Road Vehicles on the Northwestern Mojave Desert: A collection of Papers. Ed. Kristin H. Berry. Ridgecrest: 58-73.
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Canfield, J. E., Lyon, L.J., Michael, H.J. & Thompson, M.J. (1999). Ungulates effects of recreation on Rocky mountain wildlife: A review for Montana. Montana Chapter of the Wildlife Society. 2003.
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Cannings, S. & Cannings, R. (1995). Rare invertebrates of the South Okanagan, B.C. Conservation Data Centre. 2003.

Caslick, J. W. (1997). Effects of Winter Recreation on Wildlife. 2003.
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Cassirer, E. F., Freddy, D.J. & Abies, E.D. (1992). Elk responses to disturbance by cross country skiers in Yellowstone National Park. Wildlife Society Bulletin 20: 375-381.
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Chapman, D. (1988). Impact of Alpine Ski Trail Corridors on a Beech-Maple Forest Community, Mon-Ste-Marie, Quebec: Spatial Variation of Edge Effects. University of Ottawa, Canada.
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Chester, J. M. (1976). Human-wildlife interactions in the Gallatin Range, Yellowstone National Park. Montana State University, Bozeman.
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Cole, D. N. (1981). Vegetational changes associated with recreational use and fire suppression in the Eagle Cap Wilderness, Oregon: Some management implications. Biological Conservation 20: 247-270.
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Cole, D. N. (1985). Recreational trampling effects on six habitat types in western Montana, Research paper INT-350. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agricultural Services, Intermountain Research Station.
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Cole, D. N., & Knight, R.L. (1990). Impacts of recreation on biodiversity in wilderness. Proceedings of a symposium on Wilderness areas and their impacts.
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Cole, D. N. (1993). Trampling effects on mountain vegetation in Washington, Colorado, New Hampshire, and North Carolina. Research Paper. INT-464. Ogden, UT: U.S.D.A., Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station.: 37pp.
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Cole, D. N. & Trull, S. (1992). Quantifying vegetational Response to Recreational Disturbance in the Northern Cascades. Washington. Northwest Science 66(4): 229-236.
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Cooke, A. S. (1980). Observations on how close certain passerine species will tolerate an approaching human in rural and suburban areas. Biological Conservation 18: 85-88.
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Cowan, I. M. (1974). Management implications of behavior in the large herbivorous mammals. The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management 2: 921-934.
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Creel, S., Fox, J., Hardy, A., Sands, J., Garrott, B. & Peterson, R.O. (2001). Snowmobile activity and glucocorticoid stress responses in wolves and elk. Montana State University. 2003.

Dale, D. & Weaver, T. (1974). Trampling effects on vegetation of the trail corridors of north Rocky Mountain Forests. Journal of Applied Ecology 11: 767-772.
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--Full document-- (pdf file, 1.18 MB)

Defenders of Wildlife. (2002). Out of control: The impacts of off-road vehicles and roads on wildlife and habitat. Retrieved December 19, 2003 from www.defenders.org/habitat/florvs
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Deforge, J. R. (1972). Man's invasion into bighorn habitat. Trans. Desert Bighorn Council. 16: 112-115.
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Deforge, J. R. (1976). Stress: Is it limiting bighorn? Trans Desert Bighorn Council. 20: 30-31.
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DesGranges, J. L. & Reed, A. (1981). Disturbance and control of selected colonies of double-crested cormorants in Quebec. Colonial Water birds 4: 12-19.
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Devol, J. (1991). Synopsis of research on the effects of OHV recreation on wildlife.
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Doan, K. H. (1970). Effects of snowmobiles on fish and wildlife resources. Conservation International Associates, Game Fish Conservation Commission, 60: 97-103.
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Doherty, J. E. (1974). Shame on the snow. National Wildlife, 12(2): 28-29.
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Dorrance, M., & Savage, P.J. & Huff, D.E. (1975). Effects of snowmobiles on white-tailed deer. Journal of Wildlife Management, 39(3): 563-569.
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--Full document-- (pdf file, 1.61 MB)

Eckstein, R. G., O’Brien, T.F., Rongstad, O.J., & Bollinger, J.G. (1979). Snowmobile effects on movements of white-tailed deer: A case study. Environmental Conservation, 6: 45-51.
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--Full document-- (pdf file, 1.97 MB)

Enderson, J. H. (1974). Status of the Peregrine Falcon in the Rocky Mountains in 1973. Auk 91: 727-736.
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Engel, J. M., Courtsal, F.R., Martin, R.L., Messerji, J.R., Hooper, T.H., & Mumford, R.E. (1975). Recovery plan for the Indiana Bat. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington D.C.: 34pp.
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Erwin, R. M. (1980). Breeding habitat use by colonially nesting water birds in two mid-Atlantic U.S. regions under different regimes of human disturbances. Biological Conservation, 18: 39-51.
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Ferguson. M.A.D., & Langvatn, R. (1985). Influence of Nordic skiing on distribution of moose and elk in Elk Island National Park, Alberta. Canadian Field Naturalist, 96: 69-78.
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Ferns, R. M., & Kutiiek, M.J. (1989). Responses of black-tailed deer to off-highway vehicles in Hollister Hills State Vehicular Recreation Area Hollister, CA. Department of Biological Sciences, San Jose State University: 42pp.
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Fetterolf, P. M. (1981). Reproductive success of minimally disturbed ring-billed gulls. Colonial Water birds, 4(68).
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Foresman, C.L., Ryerson, D.K., Walejko, R.N., Pendleton, J.W., & Paulson,W.H. (1976). Effect of snowmobile traffic on bluergass. Journal of Environ. Qual 5(2): 129-130.
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Freddy, D. J., Bronaugh, W.M., & Fowler, M.C. (1986). Responses of mule deer to disturbance by persons afoot and in snowmobiles. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 14: 63-68.
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French, J. M. (1972). Distribution, abundance, and breeding status of ospreys in northwestern California. Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA: 58pp.
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Fyfe, R. (1969). The peregrine falcon in northern Canada. Peregrine falcon populations: Their biology and decline. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.
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Garber, D. P. (1972). Osprey nesting ecology in Lassen and Plumas Counties. California. Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA: 59pp.
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Garton, E. G., Bowen, C.W., & Foin, T.C. (1977). The impact of visitors on small mammal communities of Yosemite National Park. University of California, Davis Institute of Ecology: 44-50.
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Gates, J. E. (1981). A functional approach to estimating habitat edge width for forest birds. The American Midland Naturalist, 105: 189-192.
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Geist, V. (1971). Is big game harassment harmful? Oilweek, 22(17): 12-13.
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Geist, V., Stemp, R.E., & Johnson, R.H. (1985). Heart-rate telemetry of bighorn sheep as a means to investigate disturbances. College, England: Recreational Ecology Research Group Report No. 9. Wye College, England.

Gillett, W. H., Haywardjr., J.L., & Stout, J.F. (1975). Effects of human activity on egg and chick mortality in a glaucous-winged gull colony. Condor, 77: 492-495.
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Girardin, D. L., Lowe, E.F., & St. Johns River Water Management District (FL). (1986). The effects of off-road vehicle traffic on vegetation of the floodplain of the upper St. Johns River. Palatka, FL: Department of Water Resources.

Gochfeld, M. (1978). Terns in Traffic. Natural History, 87(6): 54-61.
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Godfrey, P. J., Brodhead, J., Walker, H., Gilligan, J., & Davis, A. (1975). Ecological effects of off-road vehicles in Cape Cod National Seashore. Massachusetts, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, National Park Service: 121.
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Goodrich, J. M., & Berger, J. (1994). Winter recreation and hibernating black bears-Ursus Americanus. Biological Conservation, 67: 107-110.
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Goodson, N. J. (1978). Status of bighorn sheep in Rocky Mountain National Park. Colorado State University. Fort Collins: 190pp.
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Gotmark, F. (1992). The effects of investigator disturbance on nesting birds. Current Ornithology, 9: 63-104.
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Gottfried, B. M. (1978). Experimental analysis of nest predation in an old-field habitat. Auk, 95: 304-312.
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Graham, H. (1971). Environmental analysis procedures for bighorn in the San Gabriel mountains. Trans Desert Bighorn Council 15: 38-45.
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Graham, H. (1980). The impact of modern man-the desert bighorn: It's life history, ecology and management. Tucson, University of Arizona Press: 288-309.
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Grier, J.W. (1969). Bald eagle behavior and productivity responses to climbing to nests. Journal of Wildlife Management, 33, 961-966.
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Griscom, B. (1994). Wildlife protected along many rail-trails. Trailblazer, 5-6.
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Grubb, T. G., & King, R. M. (1991). Assessing human disturbance of breeding bald eagles with classification tree models. Journal of Wildlife Management, 55(3), 500-511.
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Grubb, T. G., Bowerman, W.W., Giesy, G.P., & Dawson, G. A. (1992). Responses of breeding bald eagles, Haliateetus Leucocephalis, to human activities in North central
Michigan. Canadian Field Naturalist, 106, 443-453.
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Gutzwiller, K., Wiedenmann, R.T., Clements, K.L., & Anderson., S. H. (1994). Effects of human intrusion on song occurrence and singing consistency in sub-alpine birds. Auk, 111, 28-37.
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Hall, C. N., & Kuss, F. R. ( 1989). Vegetation alteration along trails in Shenandoah National Park, Virginia. Biological Conservation, 48: 211-227.
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Hamilton, K. S., Holl, S. A., & Douglas, C. L. (1982). An evaluation of the effects of recreational activity on Bighorn sheep in the San Gabriel Mountains, CA. Paper presented at the Desert Bighorn Council Transactions, 26th annual meeting.
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Hamilton, N. (1997). A partial literature review of the effects of various human activities on wildlife. Bureau of Land Management.
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Harnik, P. (1972). Funmobile folly. National Parks & Conservation Magazine, 46, 29-33.

Hayes, D. W. (1985). Off-Road vehicle impacts to wildlife species on the Gifford Pinchot, National Forest. Washington Department of Game.
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Heinzman, G. (1961). The American bald eagle: Despite protection, this wary bird cannot coexist with man. Natural History, 70(6), 18-21.
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Henson, P., & Grant, T. A. (1991). The effects of human disturbance on trumpeter swan breeding behavior. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 19, 248-257.
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Hickman, S. (1990). Evidence of edge species attraction to nature trails within deciduous forest. Natural Areas Journal, 10, 3-5.
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Hicks, L. L., & Elder, J. M. (1979). Human disturbance of Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep. Journal of Wildlife Management, 43, 909-915.
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Holmes, T. L., Knight, R.L., Stegall, L., & Craig, G. R. (1993). Responses of wintering grassland raptors to human disturbance. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 14, 63-68.

Holroyd, J. C. (1967). Observations of Rocky mountain goats on Mount Wardle, Kootenaly National Park, British Columbia. Canadian Field Naturalist, 81, 1-22.
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Hosier, P.E. & Eaton, T. E. (1980). The impact of vehicles on dune and grassland vegetation on a South-Eastern North Carolina barrier beach. Journal of Applied Ecology 17: 173-182.
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--Full document-- (pdf file, 1.21 MB)

Hubbe, M. (1973). Snowmobile tracks and animal mobility.
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Huff, D. E. (1971-April 1972). Wildlife-snowmobile interaction project: Preliminary report covering period November. University of Minnesota and Minnesota Department of Natural Resources Cooperating.
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Hunt, G. L. J. (1972). Influence of food distribution and human disturbance on the reproductive success of herring gulls. Ecology, 53, 1050-1061.
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Ikeda, H., & Okutomi, K. (1990). Effects of human trampling on multispecies competition on early-phase development of a tread community. Ecological Resource, 5, 41-54.
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Jenni, D. A. (1969). A study of the ecology of four species of herons during the breeding season at Lake Alice, Alachua County, Florida. Ecological Monograph, 39, 245-270.
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Johnson, R. F., & Sloan, N. F. (1976). The effects of human disturbance on the white pelican colony at Chase Lake National Wildlife Refuge, North Dakota. International Bird-Banding News, 48, 163-170.
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Jones & Stokes Associates, Inc. (1990). Interim report Rock Creek Off-Road Vehicle/Deer study. California Department of Fish and Game and California Department of Parks and Recreation and El dorado National Forest.
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Jones & Stokes Associates, Inc. (1991). Rock Creek off-road vehicle/deer study. Prepared for CA. Department of Fish and Game; CA. Department of Parks and Recreation and El dorado National Forest, Sacramento, CA.
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Jorgensen, P. (1974). Vehicle use at a desert bighorn watering area. Transactions of Desert Bighorn Council, 18, 18-24.
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Kerfoot, D. E. Tundra disturbance studies in the western Canadian arctic.
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Keuert, S. R., & Berry, J. K. (1985). A bibliography of human-animal relations. University Press of America, Lanham, MD.
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King, M. M., & Workman, G. M. (1986). Response of desert Bighorn sheep to human harassment: management implications. Paper presented at the Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference.
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Kirby, R. E. (1985). The impact of human activity upon wildlife and wildlife habitat. Statement of work. Official information transfer. Research and Development, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Klein, D. R. (1971). Reaction of reindeer to obstructions and disturbance. Science, 173, 393-398.
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Klein, M. L. (1993). Waterbird behavioral responses to human disturbances. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 21, 31-39.
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Klinghammer, E. (1978, 23-24 February 1978). Man and Animals: Towards a sympatric relationship with wild animals. Paper presented at the C.M. Kirkpatrick, ed Wildlife and People. Proceedings of the 1978 John S. Wright Forestry Conference, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN.
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Knight, R. L. (1984). Responses of nesting ravens to people in areas of different human densities. Condor, 86, 345-346.
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Knight, R. L., & Gutzwiuer, K. J. (1995). Wildlife and recreationists: Coexistence through management and research. Island Press Covelo, CA.
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Knight, R. L., & Kawashima, J. Y. (1993). Responses of Raven and Red-Tailed Hawk populations to linear right of ways. Journal of Wildlife Management, 266-271.
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Knight, R. L., & Skagen, S. K. (1988). Effects of recreational disturbance on birds of prey: A review. Paper presented at the Proceedings of S.W. Raptor Management Symposium and Workshop.
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Koford, C. B. (1953). The California condor. (Report 4). National Audobon Society Research.
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Kopischke, E. D. (1972). Effects of snowmobile activity on the distribution of white-tailed deer in south-central Minnesota 1971- 1979 (Reports 32(2)). Minnesota Game Research Quarterly Progress.

Kuck, L., Hompland, G.L., & Merrill, E.H. (1985). Elk calf response to simulated noise distribution in southeast Idaho. Journal of Wildlife Management, 49(4), 926-930.

Laing, M. E. (1992). How off-highway vehicles affect birds. National Off-Highway Vehicle Conservation Council: 1-2.
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Laing, M. E. (1992). How off-highway vehicles affect deers. National Off-Highway Vehicle Conservation Council: 1-4
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Laing, M. E. (1992). How off-highway vehicles affect elks. National Off-Highway Vehicle Conservation Council: 1-3
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Laing, M. E. (1992). How off-highway vehicles affect mountain sheep. National Off-Highway Vehicle Conservation Council: 1-2
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Lavigne, G. R. (1976). Winter response of deer to snowmobiles and selected natural factors. University of Maine.
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Lazan, G. (1969). Thrill killers. American Forests, 75(5), 6-7, 36.
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Lenington, S. (1979). Predators and blackbirds: The "uncertainty principle" in field biology. Auk: 96, 190-192.
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Levenson, H., & Koplin, J. R. (1984). Effects of human activity on productivity of nesting ospreys. Journal of Wildlife Management, 48, 1374-1377.
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Leptich, D.J. & Zager, P. (1991). Road access management effects on Elk mortality and population dynamics. Elk Vulnerability Symo, MSU, Bozeman, MT, Bozeman, MT.
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Liddle, M. (1991). Recreation ecology: Effects of trampling on plants and corals. Trends in ecology and evolution. Ecology and Evolution, 6, 13-17.
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Liddle, M. J., & Moore, K. G. (1974). The microclimate of sand dune tracks: the relative contribution of vegetation removal and soil compression. Journal of Applied Ecology, 11(3), 1057-1068.

Light, J. T. (1970). A progress report on Bighorn habitat management in the San Bemadino National Forest: Trans. Desert Bighorn Council.
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Light, J. T. (1973). Analysis of Bighorn habitat in the San Gabriel Mountains. Transactions of the Desert Bighorn Council, 17, 53-58.
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Light, J. T. J. (1971). An ecological view of Bighorn habitat on San Antonio. Paper presented at the Transactions of the North American Wild Sheep Conference.
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Luckenbach, R.A. & Bury, R.B. (1983). Effects of off-road vehicles on the biota of the Algodones Dunes, Imperial County, California. Journal of Applied Ecology 20: 265-286.

Lyon, L. J. (1979). Habitat effectiveness of elk as influenced by roads and cover. Journal of Forestry, 77, 658-660.
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Macarthur, R. A., Geist, V., & Johnston, R. H. (1982). Cardiac and behavioral responses of mountain sheep to human disturbance. Journal of Wildlife Management., 46(2), 351-358.
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Manini, B. P., Neuhaus, & Ingold, P. (1993). Behavior of Marmots under the influence of different hiking activities. Biological Conservation, 64, 161-164.
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Mathisen, E. (1976). Effects of human disturbance on nesting of bald eagles. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 32(1), l-6.
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McCool, S. F. (1978). Snowmobiles, animals, and man: Interactions and management issues. Paper presented at the Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference.
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McLeuan, B. N., & Shackleton, D. M. (1989). Immediate reactions of grizzly bears to human activities. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 17, 269-274.
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Michael, E. D. (1976). Effects of highways on wildlife. Division of Forestry. West Virginia University Morgantown.
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Miller, S. G., & Knight, R. L. Wildlife responses to pedestrians and dogs. Fort Collins, CO: Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology, Colorado State University.
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Miuer, S. G., & Richard, L. K. Recreational Trails and Avian Communities. Fort Collins, CO: Dept. of Fishery and Wildlife Biology Colorado State University.
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Moen, A. (1976). Energy conservation by white-tailed deer in the winter. Ecology, 57, 192-198.

Moen, A., N. (1982). Effects of disturbance by snowmobiles on heart rate of captive white-tailed deer. New York Fish and Game Journal, 29(2), 176-186.
--Abstract only--

Morgantini, L. E., & Hudson, R. J. (1980). Human disturbance and habitat selection in Elk. North American elk. Ecology, Behavior and Management: 132-139.
--Abstract only--

Murphy, J. R. (1965). Nest site selection by the bald eagle in Yellowstone National Park. Utah Academy of Sciences, 42, 261-264.
--Abstract only--

Neil, P. H., Hoffman, R.W., & Gill, R. B. (1975). Effects of harassment on wild animals-an annotated bibliography of selected references (Special report number 37). Colorado Division of Wildlife.
--Abstract only--

Owens, N. W. (1977). Responses of wintering Brent Geese to human disturbance. Wildfowl, 28, 5-14.
--Abstract only--

Olsen, P., & Olsen, J. (1980). Alleviating the impact of human disturbances in the breeding peregrine falcon. H. Public and recreational lands. Corella, 4, 54-57.
--Abstract only--

Penland, S. T. (1976). The natural history and current status of the Caspian Tern (Hydroprogne caspia) in Washington State. M.S. Thesis. University of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA: 101pp.
--Abstract only--

Penny, J. R. (1971). Off-road vehicles on the public lands in California. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 1971 Snowmobile and Off the Road Vehicle Research Symposium, East Lansing, MI. Michigan State University.
--Abstract only--

Piatt, J. F., Roberts, B.D., Lidster, W.W., Wells, J.L., & Hatch, S. A. (1990). Effects of human disturbance on breeding least and crested auklets at St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Aukland, 107, 342-350.
--Abstract only--

Pomerantz, G. A., Decker, D.J., Goff, G.R., & Purdy, K. G. (1988). Assessing impact of recreation and wildlife: a classification scheme. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 16, 58-62.
--Abstract only--

Poole, A. (1981). The effects of human disturbance on osprey reproductive success. Colonial Waterbirds, 4, 20-27.
--Abstract only--

Portnoy, J. W. (1974). Some ecological and behavioral aspects of a nesting population of red-shouldered hawks (Buteo lineatus lineatus). M.S. Thesis. University of Massachusetts, Amherst: 61pp.
--Abstract only--

Pudoff, T. J. (1992). The spatial and temporal effects of off-highway vehicles on vegetation and landforms in an arid environment: A case study of Ocotillo Wells State Vehicular Recreation Area, California.

Purdy, K. G., & Shaw, W. W. (1980). Recreational use of desert bighorn habitat in Pusch Ridge Wilderness. Trans Desert Bighorn Council, 24, 52-56.
--Abstract only--

Racine, C. H., Johnson, L. A., & Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory. (1988). Effects of all-terrain vehicle traffic on tundra terrain near Anaktuvuk Pass, Alaska. Hanover, NH, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory.

Radforth, J. R. (1972). Analysis of disturbance effects of operations of off-road vehicles on tundra. Ottawa, Northern Economic Development Branch Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development.

Radforth, J. R., & Arctic Land Use Research Program (Canada) (1973). Analysis of disturbance effects of operations of off-road vehicles on tundra. Ottawa, Northern Economic Development Branch Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development.

Radforth, J. R., & Arctic Land Use Research Program (Canada) (1973). Immediate effects of wheeled vehicle traffic on tundra during the summer. Ottawa, Northern Natural Resources and Environment Branch Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development.

Radforth, J. R., & University of New Brunswick Muskeg Research Institute. (1972). Long term effects of summer traffic by tracked vehicles on tundra. Ottawa, Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development.

Ream, C. H. (1979). Human-wildlife conflicts in backcountry: Possible solutions. Paper presented at the Conference proceedings: Recreational impacts on wild lands.
--Abstract only--

Ream, C. H. (1980). Impact of backcountry recreationists on wildlife: An annotated bibliography. USDA General Technical Report INT-84.
--Abstract only--

Reeves, R. H. (1952). Wild turkey management in Arizona. Paper presented at the Wild turkey management in Arizona.
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Retfalvi, L. I. (1965). Breeding behavior and feeding habits of the bald eagle (Haliantus leucocephalis L.) on San Juan Island, Washington. University of British Columbia, Vancouver: 180pp.
--Abstract only--

Reynolds, H. V. (1969). Population studies of the golden eagle in south central Montana. M.S. Thesis. University of Montana, Missoula: 69pp.
--Abstract only--

Richens, V. B., & Lavigne, G. R. (1978). Response of white-tailed deer to snowmobiles and snowmobile trails in Maine. Canadian Field-Naturalist, 92(4), 334-344.
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Rickard, W.E., & Brown, J. (1974). Effects of vehicles on Arctic Tundra. Environmental Conservation, 1(1), 55-62.
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Riegelhith, R. (1966). Grizzly bears and human visitation. Fort Collins, Colorado State University: 80pp.
--Abstract only--

Robbins, C. S. (1979). Effects of forest fragmentation on bird populations.
--Abstract only--

Robert, H. C., & Ralph, C. J. (1975). Effects of human disturbance on breeding success of gulls. Condor, 77, 495-499.
--Abstract only--

Robert M. Ferris, M. J. K. (1989). Response of black-tailed deer to off-highway vehicles in Hollister hills state vehicular recreation area. Hollister, CA: Department of Biological Sciences, San Jose State University.
--Full document-- (pdf file, 4.23 MB)

Robertson, R. J., & Flood, N. (1980). Effects of recreational use of shorelines on breeding bird populations. Canadian Field Naturalist, 94, 131-138.
--Abstract only--

Rost, G. R. (1975). Response of deer and elk to roads. M.S. Thesis. Colorado State University, Fort Collins: 51pp.
--Abstract only--

Ryerson, D. K., Schlough, D. A., Foresman, C. L., Tenpas, G. H., & Pendelton, J. W. (1977). Effects of snowmobile traffic on several forage species and winter wheat. Agronomy, 69(Sept.-Oct.), 769-772.
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--Full document-- (pdf file, 900 KB)

Sachet, G. A. (1988). Wildlife evaluation processes for ORV, hiking and horse backcountry recreation use in Washington forests. Washington Department of Wildlife, Habitat Management Division.

Sachet, G. A. (1989). Key species and sensitive habitats in Washington State: Impacts of disturbance. Washington Department of Wildlife, U.S. Forest Service, Wenatchee National Forest.
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Sather, J. H. Wildlife survey and investigations: Muskrat investigations (W-015-R-08/WP13). Nebraska Game Parks, Community Project.
--Abstract only--

Schmid, W. D. (1972). Snowmobile activity, subnivean microclimate and winter mortality of small animals. Bulletin of Ecological Society of America, 53(2), 37.
--Abstract only--

Schnell, J. H. (1979). Habitat management series for unique or endangered species (report no. 18). U.S. Bureau of Land Management Tech. Note 329.
--Abstract only--

Schoenfield, C. A., & Hendee, J. C. (1978). Wildlife management in wilderness. Wildlife Management Institute and Boxwood Press, Pacific Grove, California.
--Abstract only--

Schofield, K. A., & Duke University School of the Environment. (1995). An analysis of nighttime vehicle use impacts on sea turtle nesting: South Core Banks. Cape Lookout National Seashore. 50 leaves.

Schrieber, R. W. (1982). A brown study of the brown pelican. Natural History, 91(1), 38-42.
--Abstract only--

Schultz, R. D., & Bailey, J. A. (1978). Responses of national park elk to human activity. Journal of WildlifeManagement., 42(1), 91-100.
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--Full document-- (pdf file, 2.29 MB)

Selkirk Mountain Woodland Caribou Recovery Team. (1985). Recovery plan for Woodland Caribou in the Selkirk mountains. Retrieved December 19, from https://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plans/1994/940304.pdf

Severinghaus, C. W., & Tullar, B. F. (1975). Wintering deer versus snowmobiles. Conservationist, 29(6), 31.
--Abstract only--

Singer, F. J. (1975). Behavior of mountain goats, elk, and other wildlife in relation to U.S. Highway 2, Glacier National Park. West Glacier National Park, West Glacier, Montana.
--Abstract only--

Skagen, S. K. (1980). Behavioral responses of wintering bald eagles to human activity on the Skagit river, Washington. Paper presented at the Proc. of the Washington bald eagle symposium.
--Abstract only--

Skagen, S. K., Knight, R.L. & Orians, G. H. (1991). Human disturbance in an avian scavenging guild. Applied Ecology, 1, 215-225.

Skiba, G. T. (1981). Ecological evaluation of the Dinosaur National Monument bighorn sheep herd. M.S. Thesis. Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO: 107pp.
--Abstract only--

Snow, C. (1973). Habitat management series for endangered species (report no. 6). U.S. Bureau of Land Management.
--Abstract only--

Sodja, R. J. (1978). Effects of snowmobile activity on wintering pheasants and wetland vegetation in Northern Iowa marshes. M.S. Thesis. Iowa State University, Ames, IA: 67pp.
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Sokale, J., & Trulio, L. (1996). San Francisco Bay Trail Project: Wildlife and Public Access Study Proposed Research Plan. San Francisco Bay Trail Project
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Stalmaster, M. V., Astalmaster, M. V., & Newman, J. R. (1978). Behavioral responses of wintering bald eagles to human activity. Journal of Wildlife Management, 42, 506-513.
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--Full document-- (pdf file, 2.09 MB)

Steiner, A. J., & Leatherman, S. P. (1981). Recreational impacts on the distribution of ghost crabs Ocypode Quadrata Fab. Conservation, 20, 111-122.
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--Full document-- (pdf file, 1.61 MB)

Stevens, D. R. (1982). Bighorn sheep management in Rocky Mountain national Park. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the Biennial Conference of Northern Wild Sheep Goat Council.
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Stevenson, G. G., University of Wisconsin--Madison Center for Resource Policy Studies and Programs, & Bishop, R. C. (1978). Off-road vehicle recreation and endangered species: A study in conflicting resource values. Madison, WI: Center for Resource Policy Studies University of Wisconsin--Madison.

Stokes, J. (1991). Rock Creek Off-Road Vehicle/Deer Study. 1.
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Sullivan, S. (1992). Endangered status of bird mulled. The Press-Enterprise.

Sullivan, S. (1992). Voluntary plan for gnatcatcher survey attacked. B-3.

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Tace-Smith, R. (1975). The misuse of snowmobiles against wildlife in Canada. Nature Canada, 4(4), 3-8.
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Thompson, R., W. (1980). Effects of forest fragmentation at ski areas on breeding neo tropical bird guilds. Western Ecosystems, Inc, 459-464.
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Thompson, R. W. (1980). Population dynamics, habitat utilization, recreational impacts and trapping of introduced Rocky Mountain Goats in the Eagle's nest Wilderness Area, CO. Wild Sheep Goat Council, 2, 459-464.
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Tracy, D. M. (1977). Reactions of wildlife to human activity along Mount McKinley, National Park Road. University of Alaska, Fairbanks: 260.
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Tremblay J., & Ellison, L. N. (1979). Effects of human disturbance on breeding of black-crowned night herons. Auk, 96, 364-369.
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Tuite, C. H., Owen, M., & Paytner, D. (1983). Interaction between wildfowl and recreation at Llangorse Lake and Talybont Reservoir, South Wales. Wildfowl, 34, 48-63.

University of New Brunswick Muskeg Research Institute. (1972). Immediate effects of wheeled vehicle traffic on tundra during the summer. Fredericton, N.B., University of New Brunswick.

Unsworth, J.W., Lonn. K., Scott, M.D. Garton, E.O. (1993). Elk mortality in the clearwater drainage of northcentral Idaho. Journal of Wildlife Management 57(3): 495-502.
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Van Der Zande, A. H., & Vos, P. (1984). Impact of semi-experimental increases in recreation activity on the densities of birds in hedges and groves on a lakes shore in the Netherlands. Biological Conservation, 30, 237-259.
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Vos, D. K., Ryder, R.A. & Gram, W. D. (1985). Response of breeding great blue herons to human disturbance in north central Colorado. Colonial Water birds, 8, 13-22.
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Walter, H. (1978). Impact of human activity on wildlife. Sourcebook on the environment. A guide to literature: 241-262.
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Wanek, W. (1971). Observations on snowmobile impact. Minnesota, 34((199)), 1-9.
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Wanek, W. (1973). The ecological impact of snowmobiling in Northern Minnesota. The Center for environmental studies-Bemidji State College Bemidji, Minnesota.
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Wanek, W., & Schumacher, L. H. (1975). A continuing study of the ecological impact of snowmobiling in Northern Minnesota. The Center for Environmental Studies, Bemidji State University, Bemidji, MN.
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Ward, A. L., & Cupal, J. J. (1980). Telemetered heart rate of three Elk as effected by activity and human disturbance. U.S. Forest Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.
--Abstract only--

Watson, A. (1979). Bird and mammal numbers in relation to human impact on ski lofts on Scottish hills. Journal of Applied Ecology, 16, 753-764.
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Weaver, T., & Dale, D. (1978). Trampling effects of hikers, motorcycles and horses in meadows and forests. Journal of Applied Ecology, 15, 451-457.
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Webb, D. R. (1992). An investigation of sheep transportation with all-terrain vehicles.

Wershkul, D. F., McMahon, E., & Lieitschuh, M. (1976). Some effects of human activities on the great blue heron in Oregon. Wilson Bulletin, 88, 660-662.
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Whinan, J., Cannell, E.F., Kirkpatrick, J.B., & Comfort, M. (1994). Studies on the potential impact of recreational horse riding in some alpine environments of the Central Plateau, Tasmania. Journal of Environmental Management, 40, 103-117.
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White, C. M., & Thurow, T. L. (1985). Reproduction of feruginous hawks exposed to controlled disturbance. Condor, 87, 14-22.
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Willard, B. E., & Marr, J. W. (1970). Effects of human activities on Alpine Tundra ecosystems in Rocky Mountain national park. Biological Conservation, 2(4), 257-265.
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Wilshire, H.G., Shipley, S. & Nakata, J.K. Impacts of off-road vehicles on vegetation. Paper presented at the Forty-third North American Wildlife Conference.
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Wilson, J. P., & Seney, J. P. (1994). Erosional impact of hikers, horses, motorcycles, and off-road bicycles on mountain trails in Montana. Mountain Research and Development, l4(1), 77-88.
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Wone, B., Beauchamp, B., Olson, E. G., & Wolf, B. O. (1991). A survey to determine distribution pattern and abundance of the flat-tailed horned lizard, Phrynosoma Mcallii, at Ocotillo Wells state vehicular recreation area and the acquisition Area, California. San Jose, California: Department of Biological Sciences, San Jose State University.

Yalden, P. E., & Walden, D. W. (1990). Recreational disturbance of breeding golden plovers. Biological Conservation, 15, 243-262.
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Yalden, P. E., & Walden, D. W. (1992). The influence of recreational disturbance on common sandpipers breeding by an upland reservoir in England. Biological Conservation, 61, 41-49.
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Yarmoloy, C., Bayer, M., & Geist, V. (1981). Behavior responses and reproduction of
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